Tools and Techniques of assessment

TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES OF ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING

Characteristics of Good measuring Instrument:

Essential Qualities:

Like a good tool or a machine, a good measuring instrument must meet certain minimum requirements before it is deemed to be reliable. What are the essential characteristics and requirements of a good measuring instrument? These are planning, validity, reliability, objectivity, discriminating power, adequacy, practicality, comparability and utility. All of these qualities are criteria that must be given serious thought when a teacher selects a measuring instrument.

Any good measuring too should possess certain characteristics. So, evaluation technique is judged for its adequacy efficiency and consistency as measuring device on the basis of commonly accepted qualities. These are Validity, Reliability, Objectivity and Usability or Practicability.

1. VALIDITY:

The test should be Valid. It should fulfill the objectives for which it is meant. If our aim is to measure the ability to understand and application of mathematical facts then language difficulty and speed should not come in way. Thus, it should be free from defects that are likely to affect the valid results.

1. The Validity of a test is defined as “the accuracy, with which a test measures whatever it is supposed to measure.”

2. Validity is the accuracy with which a test reliably measures what is relevant.

3. “The efficiency with which a test measures what it attempts to measure”.

The validity of a test is affected by the following factors.

1. Unclear Directions: When the directions don’t clearly indicate to the pupils the answer will tend to reduce the validity. For example,

Unclear: State whether the following statements are true or false. Give reasons.

Clear: State whether each of the following statements is true or false. If false, give reasons.

2. Reading Vocabulary: If the reading vocabulary is poor the students fail to reply to the tests item, even if they know the answer. It rather becomes a reading comprehension test for them, and the validity decreases.

3. Difficult sentence construction: If a sentence is so constructed as to be difficult to understand, students would be unnecessarily confused, which will affect the validity of the test, for example,

“Carefully select the material to be interpreted so that the interpretation to be made will not be insignificant and non-representative of the course content and non-behavioural objectives.”

4. Poorly constructed test Items: Poorly constructed test items reduce the validity of a test .

For example:

Poor: The famous rivers in India are__________.

There are many correct answers to this test items ; e.g., (I) in the north part of India (ii) south Indian rivers?....

5. Use of inappropriate items: With the help of objective type items, the pupils’ power of organizing matter cannot be judged. By written test items the pupils’ correct pronunciation cannot be judged. The use of such inappropriate items lowers validity.

6. Medium of expression: English, as the medium of instruction and response for non-English medium students, creates many serious problems. Such tests through the English medium, instead of measuring learning outcomes in a subject, measure primarily the knowledge of English, which ultimately affects the validity of a test.

7. Difficulty level of items: Too easy or too difficult test items would not discriminate among pupils; thereby the validity of a test will be lowered.

8. Influence of extraneous factors: Extraneous factors, like the style of expression, legibility, mechanics of grammar (spelling, punctuation, etc.) handwriting, length of the answer, method of organising the matter, etc., influence the validity of a test. If a student gets a higher score because of his ability to draw artistic diagrams in science, the score because of his ability to draw artistic diagrams in science, the score does not tell the whole truth about his achievement in science; hence the tests is not valid. Lack of neatness, while answering attest item in algebraic equations, should not influence the score.

9. Inappropriate time limit: In a speed test, if no time limit is given, the results will be invalidated. In a power test, an inappropriate time limit will lower its validity. Our tests have become power tests as well speed tests. Hence, much care should be taken in fixing the time limit.

10. Inadequate Coverage of Content: If a test covers only 5 to 6 topics out of 20 topics then it fails to measure adequately what it is supposed to measure. Essay type items generally fail to cover a vast portion of the content. Inadequate sampling lowers validity.

Generally in easy type tests the examiner is greatly influenced by the factors such as style of expression, length of the measure, handwriting the method of organization etc. All these factors lower the validity of the test.

11. Inadequate weightage: Inadequate weightage to sub-topics or objectives or various forms of questions would call into question the validity of a test.

Validity is the most important consideration on the selection and use of any testing procedure.

It should always be remembered that------

(a) Validity is an inclusive term, and includes and is affected by all the other characteristics of the measuring instrument.

(b) Validity is a matter of degree. It may be high, moderate or low. It does not exist on an all-or-none basis. For example, the result of a Geometry test may have a high validity for indicating logical deductive reasoning, a moderate validity for indicating skill in drawing figures and low validity for indicating computational skill.

(c) Validity is specific rather than general. A test may be valid for one specific purpose but not for another, valid for one specific group of students but not for another. For example, an ordinary foot-rule may be----

(i) Valid for measuring the length of a segment in millimeters but not valid for measuring the same in fractions of a millimeters;

(ii) Valid for measuring the length of a room, but not for measuring the distance between Bombay and Surut;

(iii) Valid for drawing a segment but not for drawing a circle.

An achievement test in mathematics may be--

(i) Valid for Std. VIII and not for Std. X;

(ii) Valid for std. VIII in Karnataka State but not valid for the same standard in Gujarat State;

(iii) Valid for Std. VIII in an urban area but not valid for the same standard in any rural area.

Types of Validity

The following four types of validity have been identified and are commonly used in educational and psychological measurements:

(i) Content validity (how well our test sample represents the universe of criterion behaviour);

(ii) Concurrent validity (how closely test scores are correlated with present criterion behaviour);

(iii) Predictive validity (how well test scores predict future criterion behaviour);

(iv) Constructive validity (how well our test seems to measure a hypothesized trait.)

2. RELIABILITY:

The reliability of a test may be defined as,

1. “the degree of consistency among test scores”;

2. “the degree of consistency with which the test measures what it does measure.”

If a watch regularly goes 2 minutes ahead of the Indian Standard Time, it may be said that it is not valid, for it does not measure, what it is supposed to measure; but it is reliable in the sense that it consistently goes 5 minutes ahead

A test score is called reliable when we have reasons for believing it to be stable and trustworthy. Any measuring device provides only very limited data. What we hope for is the fact that a student’s score should be similar under slightly different conditions. If we measure a student’s level of achievement, we hope that his score would be similar under different administrators, using different scores, with similar but not identical items, or during a different time of the day.

In physical measurement, ordinarily very reliable measures can be obtained. This is true primarily for three basic reasons:

(a) Physical characteristics can be usually measured directly rather than indirectly;

(b) The instrument used to obtain the measure is quite precise;

Psychological and educational measurements are typically much less reliable than physical measurements. A psychological or educational measurement is indirect and is connected with less precise instruments or traits that are not always stable or well-defined. There are many reasons why a pupil’s test score may vary. Some of them are:

(a) Trait instability:The characteristics we measure may change over a period of time;

(b) Sampling error: Any particular questions we ask in order to infer a person’s knowledge may affect his score;

(c) Administrative error: Any change in direction, timing or amount of rapport with the test administrator may cause score variability;

(d) Scoring error: Inaccuracies in scoring a test paper will affect the scores.

(e) Other factors: Such things as health, motivation, degree of fatigue of the pupil and good or bad luck in guessing may cause score variability.

Methods of Estimating Reliability

Reliability is usually expressed by a coefficient of correlation which is called the reliability coefficient. The methods used to estimate reliability differ in that they allow different sources of error to show up. Many approaches can be used to estimate reliability; but the more common ones are:

(a) Test Retest Method;

(b) The Alternate or Parallel Forms Method;

(d) The Rational Equivalence Method.

All these methods are highly statistical; they are; therefore, not very useful to the ordinary classroom teacher.

Factors Influencing Reliability

The factors that affect the reliability estimates are:

(i)Method: The method used in obtaining data on reliability affects the reliability coefficient. The

method that takes into account both stability and equivalence will tend to give a lower coefficient

than the other methods.

(ii) Interval:With any method involving two testing occasions, the longer the interval of time

between two test administrations, the lower the coefficient will tend to be.

(iii) Test Length:Adding equivalent items makes a test more reliable, while deleting them makes it

less reliable. For example, a test of 40 items is more reliable than a test of l10 items, and less reliable than a test of 100items,

(iv) Speed:A test is considered to be a pure speed test if everyone who reaches an item gets it right,

but no one has time to finish all the items. Here, score differences depend upon the number of

items attempted. The opposite of a speed test is a power test. A pure power test is one in which

everyone has time to try all items but, because of the difficulty level, ordinarily no one obtains a

perfect score. Few tests are either pure speed or pure power tests. However, to the extent that a

test is speeded, it is inappropriate to estimate reliability through the split-Half Method. In that case

the Test-Retest method or parallel Forms Method should be used.

(v)Group Homogeneity: Other things being equal the more heterogeneous the group, the higher the reliability. In other words, the test is more reliable when applied to a group of students with a wide range of ability than one with a narrow range of ability.

(vi) Difficulty of the Items: Tests in which there is little variability among the scores gives lower reliability estimates than tests in which the variability is high. Too easy or too difficult tests for a group will tend to be less reliable because the differences among the students in such tests are narrow.

(vii) Objectivity of Scoring: The more subjectively a measure is scored, the lower its reliability. Ordinarily objective type tests are more reliable than subjective or essay type test. However, objectivity should not

be confused with reliability. A test having a high scoring objectivity, such as True-false test, may be

quite unreliable as a measuring instrument.

(viii) Ambiguous Wording of Items: When questions are interpreted in different ways at different times by the same students, the test becomes less reliable.

(iX) Inconsistency in Test Administration: Inconsistency in test administration such as deviations in timings, procedure, instruction, etc., fluctuations in interest and attention of the pupils. Shifts in emotional attitude, etc. make a test less reliable.

(X) Optional Questions: If optional questions are given, the same students may not attempt the same items on a second administration; thereby the reliability of the test is reduced.

Relation between Validity and Reliability

(i) Validity is sometimes defined as truthfulness while reliability is sometimes defined as trustworthiness. Truthfulness and trustworthiness are the two aspects of what is essentially the same thing, namely, test efficiency.

(ii) In order that a test should be valid, it must first of all be reliable. If we cannot get a scale to give us a consistent weight measure, we certainly cannot expect it to be accurate. Note, however, that a measure might be very consistent (reliable) but not accurate (valid). A scale may record weights which are 10 gm. too heavy each time .In other words, reliability is a necessary but not sufficient condition for validity. A reliable test may not necessarily be valid; but a test cannot be valid unless it is reliable.

(iii) Neither validity nor reliability is an either. They are degrees of each.

(iv) Since a single test may be used for many different purposes, there is no single validity index for a test. A test that has some validity for one purpose may not at all be valid for another. But for a test a single reliability coefficient may be estimated by statistical procedures.

(v) Validity includes reliability. A classroom test should be both consistent and relevant; this combination of characteristics is called validity. Thus, validity has two major aspects-reliability and relevance.

3. OBJECTIVITY:

A test is objective when the scorer’s personal judgement does not affect the scoring. Objectivity in a test makes for the elimination of biased opinion or judgement of the person who scores it. A measuring instrument is said to be highly objective if the score assigned by different but equally competent scorers is not affected by the judgement, personal opinion or bias of the scorers.

In an objective test, items can readily be scored as right or wrong. The true-false type, the alternate response type, the matching type, the multiple-choice type test items are highly objective, while essay type items are highly subjective.

Objectivity is a pre-requisite of reliability and therefore of validity. Objective judgements are accurate and hence tend to be reliable. But this does not mean that only objective type test items should be used and short-answer or essay type test items should not be used at all. The most important thing is to make the evaluation tool as objective as possible.

The objectivity of a test can be increased by-----

(a) Using more objective type test items;

(b) Making essay type test items more unambiguous, well-constructed, giving specific directions which would establish a framework within which students can operate;

(d) Setting realistic standards;

(e) Asking two independent examiners to evaluate the test and using the average score of the two as the final score.

The objectivity as well as the reliability and validity of a test may be expressed with the correlation coefficient. The coefficient of correlation between scores assigned to a group of papers by the same examiner on two occasions is called the coefficient of objectivity.

A Test is objective when the examiners judgment does not affect the scoring. Objectivity in a measuring instrument means the degree to which equally competent users get the same result. This is largely responsible for the development of standardized and objective type tests. Objectivity is a prerequisite to reliability of a test. Judgments on this line are accurate and hence tend to be reliable. In a highly objective instrument the scores assigned are affected by the judgment personal opinion or the scores.

4. Usability or Practicability:

Practicability is an important criterion for assessing the value of a test; and it depends upon a number of factors.

(A) Ease of Administrability:

(i) Definite provision should be made for the preparation, distribution and collection of test materials.

(ii) Instruction to the pupils should be simple, clear and concise.

(iii) Sample items should be illustrated by practice exercises.

(iv) The test format should be such that pupils will have no difficulty in reading the items, in recording their answers, in moving from one page to the next, etc.

(v) Illustrations should be clear cut and easily tied up with the appropriate test items.

(vi) Mechanical features of a test, such as page size, length of line and kind of type, should be such as to facilitate the administration of a test.

(B) Ease of Scoring:

(i) The results of a test possessing scorability should be obtainable in as simple, rapid and routine a manner as in proportion to their importance.

(ii) The test should be subjected to accurate scoring even by persons not conversant with their content.

(iii) No algebraic manipulations should be required to get the scores.

(C) Ease of Interpretation:

(i) The raw scores of a test should be easily converted into meaningful derived scores.

(ii) It should be feasible to interpret the results with the competence of classroom teachers. No specially trained personnel should be required in order that the results may be interpreted validity.

(D) Economy:

(i) The economy of a testing programme should be computed in terms of the validity of the tests per unit or cost.

(ii) Economy refers to the cost as well as the time required for administering and scoring a test. Any test of a duration which does not exceed a period of 45 minutes is preferred by teachers.

(iii) A test is called practicable if it can be easily administered and is acceptable to average examinees.

A good test is useful in many ways for example, a test result may be used for improvement of teaching may be useful to measure some desired quality ability in the student useful in finding out deficiencies in pupils so that remedial measures by taken up for their removal act.

While preparing a test, the time and cost of administration must be taken into consideration.

The test should be usable and should serve a definite need in the situation in which is used.

TECHNIQUES OF EVALUATION

OBSERVATIONAL TECHNIQUES:

Introduction and Meaning of Observation
The most common method used for getting information about the various things around us, is to observe those things and also the various processes related to those things. Hence, it can be said that observation acts as a fundamental and the basic method of getting information about anything. But it must be kept in mind that observation is not just seeing things but it is carefully watching the things and trying to understand them in depth, in order to get some information about them.

Observations sometimes act scientifically, when used by the researchers in various research works but it should be noted that all observations are not scientific in nature.

According to Oxford Concise Dictionary, observation means ‘accurate watching, noting the phenomenon by which they occur in the nature with regard to the cause and effect of mutual relations.’

Science begins with observation and at the end also uses observation for the final validation – so it can be said that Observation acts as very elegant method in case of scientific investigation.

Features of observation
1. Eye Observation – In an accurate sense, observation involves the use of the eyes rather than the use of the ears and the voice. An experienced worker never believes in hearsay he only trusts if he has observed that with his own eyes or if the report is a firsthand evidence of his eyes. So it can be said that observation done with the help of the eyes acts as a most trustworthy medium for making an observation.

2. Aim – Observations which act on scientific grounds are brought in use by the scientists or the researchers with some or the other aim to achieve something. Such scientists make their observations in a very minute and a detailed manner which helps them in achieving specific goals. These goals can include discovery of something, verification of the hypothesis etc.

3. Planning – The value of an observation in an operation is only if it is done properly – in a planned manner as, if it is done in a careless sense then the chance of making such an observation again may come or not. Hence, observation should be carried out in a very phased and a planned manner in order to get in depth understanding of an activity.

4. Recording – The various operations that we perform and the results that we obtain should be remembered but a known fact is that memory is very deceptive in nature. With the passage of time things tend to get out of mind, so it is very important to keep a record of such activities. One very common method to keep a track of these activities is to write down the various impressions, but now a days a tape or in some cases a video camera is used for the recording purposes.

One of the major advantages of the recording done by a tape or a video camera is that the chances of going wrong i.e. committing any mistake are very less or almost negative. In tape, actual words can be recorded which results in zero chance of committing an error.

5. Physical and mental activity – Sense organs have a very critical role to play in the observation process. During the observation researcher or an investigator has to use his sense organs for seeing and hearing things and then has to keep in mind the whole set of observations for an in depth analysis of the matter later on.

6. Exactness – Observation should be based on standardized tools of research which makes an observation exact in its nature of working.

7. Direct study – Observation is a very vital scientific method that helps a lot in the collection of the primary information that is reliable in nature in which direct study of the situation is involved.

Classroom teachers continually observe their students. The observation, however, is typically informal and unsystematic, carried on without any benefit of specific planned procedures. It is important that it should be as accurate and reliable as possible.

The term observational tools and techniques are not synonymous, although they are used interchangeably by many persons. An observation technique generally implies that use of a particular observational tool such as a rating scale, a checklist, etc. However, the process of observing and recording and individual’s behaviours what is meant by the phrase observational technique.

It is expected that that the observer should be completely objective and record the actual behaviour without attempting to synthesise of interpret behaviour.

Advantages of Observation
1. Very direct method for collecting data or information – best for the study of human behavior.
2. Data collected is very accurate in nature and also very reliable.
3. Improves precision of the research results.
4. Problem of depending on respondents is decreased.
5. Helps in understanding the verbal response more efficiently.
6. By using good and modern gadgets – observations can be made continuously and also for a larger duration of time period.
7. Observation is less demanding in nature, which makes it less bias in working abilities.
8. By observation, one can identify a problem by making an in depth analysis of the problems.

Disadvantages of Observation
1. Problems of the past cannot be studied by means of observation.
2. Having no other option one has to depend on the documents available.
3. Observations like the controlled observations require some especial instruments or tools for effective working, which are very much costly.
4. One cannot study opinions by this means.
5. Attitudes cannot be studied with the help of observations.
6. Sampling cannot be brought into use.
7. Observation involves a lot of time as one has to wait for an event to happen to study that particular event.
8. The actual presence of the observer himself Vis a Vis the event to occur is almost unknown, which acts as a major disadvantage of observation.
9. Complete answer to any problem or any issue cannot be obtained by observation alone.

Advantages of Observation

1. Frequent observations of a student’s work and work habits can provide a continuous check on his progress.

2. The errors or problems, as they arise can be immediately detected and corrective action taken quickly.

3. Observational techniques are not so time-consuming or menacing for the pupil as are achievement tests.

4. Observational data provide teachers with valuable supplementary information, much of which could not be obtained n any other way.

Suggestions to help make valid observations

1. Plan in advance what is to be observed.

2. The observer must be cognizant of sampling errors. There should be frequent, short observation distributed over a period of several weeks and at different times of the day.

3. Co-ordinate the observations with your teaching. Otherwise, there is great danger that invalid observations will result.

4. Record and summarise the observation immediately after it has occurred. More important, however, is the fact that when pupils know they are being observed, their resultant behaviour maybe atypical.

5. Make no interpretations concerning the behaviour until later on. Otherwise, it may interfere with the objectivity of gathering observational data.

6. Prepare some sort of list, guide or form to help make the observation process objective and systematic.

TYPES OF OBSERVATIONAL TOOLS:

1. Check lists:

A check list consists of a listing of steps, activities or behaviour which the observer records when an incident occurs. It is similar in appearance and use to a rating scale and is classified by some as a type of rating scale.

A check list enables the observer to note only whether or not a trait or characteristic is present. It does not permit the observer to rate the quality of a particular behaviour or its frequency of occurrence or the extent to which a particular characteristic is present. When such information is desired, the check list is definitely inappropriate.

A Specimen of Check list

Directions: Listed below are a series of characteristics related to health practices. Check those characteristics which are applicable to students.

Characteristics to be observed Roll Nos. of the pupils.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1. Take a balanced diet

2. Washes hands before breakfast

3. Brushes teeth after eating

4. Drinks plenty of water at the time of eating

5. Brushes teeth before going to bed

6. Goes for a walk daily; etc.

_______________________________________________________________________________

While using check lists-----------

1. Use check lists only when you are interested in ascertaining whether a particular trait or characteristic is present or absent;

2. Clearly specify the traits or characteristics to be observed;

3. Observe only one child at a time and confine your observations to the points specified on the check lists;

4. Have a separate check list for each child. Individual observations can be recorded on a master check list;

5. The observer must be trained how to observe, what to observe and how to record the observed behaviour. To make a valid judgement, he should omit recording those behaviours for which he has insufficient information.

Advantages of Check lists

1. They are adaptable to most subject-matter areas.

2. They are useful in evaluating those learning activities that involve a product, process and some aspects of personal-social adjustment.

3. They are most useful for evaluating those processes that can be sub-divided into a series of clear, distinct, separate actions.

4. When properly prepared, they constrain the observer to direct his attention to clearly specified traits or characteristics.

5. They allow inter-individual comparisons to be made on a common set of traits or characteristics.

6. They provide a simple method to record observations.

7. They objectively evaluate traits or characteristics.

2. Rating Scale:

Rating scales resemble check lists but are used when finer discriminations are required. Instead of merely indicating the presence or absence of a trait or characteristic, it enables us to indicate the degree to which a trait is present. Rating scales provide systematic procedures for obtaining, recording and reporting the observer’s judgements. That may be filled out while the observation is made, immediately after the observation is made or, as often is the case long after the observation.

Types of Rating Scales:

a) Numerical Rating Scale:

This is one of the simplest types of rating scales. The rater simply marks a number that indicates the extent to which a characteristic or trait is present. The trait is presented as a statement and values from 1 to 5 (a maximum of 10) are assigned to each trait that is rated. Typically a common key is used throughout, the key providing a verbal description.

Direction: Encircle the appropriate number showing the extent to which the pupil exhibits his skill in questioning.

Key: 5-outstanding, 4-above average, 3-average, 2-below average, 1- unsatisfactory.

Skill:

1. Questions were specific: 1 2 3 4 5

2. Questions were relevant to the

Topic discussed. 1 2 3 4 5

3. Questions were grammatically correct, etc. 1 2 3 4 5

b) Graphic Rating Scale:

As in the case of the numerical rating scale, the rater is required to assign some value to a specific trait. This time, however, instead of using predetermined scale values, the ratings are made in a graphic form-a position anywhere along a continuum.

Direction: Rate for each characteristic listed below along the continuum from 1 to 5. You can use points between the scale values. Mark X at the appropriate place along the continuum.

1. Were the illustrations used interesting?

1 2 3 4 5

Too little Little Adequate Much Too much

2. How attentive were you in the class?

1 2 3 4 5

Very inattentive Inattentive Attentive Very attentive

3. Did the speech show good organisaqtion?

_____________________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5

Very poor Average Very good

Advantage: If a number of traits are rated on the same page with a common set of categories, a behavioural profile can be constructed.

C) Descriptive Graphic Rating Scale

This type of scale is generally the most desirable type of scale to use.

Directions: As shown above for the graphic rating scale.

1. While preparing a blackboard summary, how was the penmanship?

Legible, beautiful, normally readable, illegible, bad-looking

Uniform size and good-looking, tends to draw outlines

Slant fluent motion

Such specific descriptions contribute to a greater objectivity of the rating process. The description also helps to clarify and further define a particular dimension.

d) Ranking:

In the ranking procedure, the rater, instead of assigning a numerical value to each student with regard to a characteristic, ranks a given set of individuals from high to low on the characteristic this rated. To ensure that the pupils are validly ranked, rank from the both extreme towards the middle. This simplifies the task of the teacher. The ranking procedure becomes very cumbersome when a large number of students or characteristics per student are to be ranked.

Sources of Error in Rating Scales:

(a) Ambiguity:This refers to the wording and meaning of the traits that are measured, e.g., to one rater, aggressiveness may be a positive trait suggesting self-assertion. To another it may cannot hostility. The term such as honestly, effective and fruitful learning, intelligent citizen, personality, ideal character, etc. must be clarified. Unless all pupils are rated on the same attributes, the rating will be invalid and unreliable.

Ambiguity in the frame of reference is another problem of rating scales. What do the words superior, good, inferior, really mean? They are relative terms

To reduce ambiguity, the behaviour to be measured should be broken up into a series of specific, observable and measureable traits by describing fully what each trait represents, and by giving example of the different kinds of behaviour associated with differing levels of the trait.

(b)Personality of the Rater:This refers the halo effect, personal bias (generosity error, severity error, central tendency error and logical error).

The halo effect occurs when a rater’s general impression of a person influence his rating.

A generosity error is committed when a rater favours the high (desirable) end of the continuum-that is, when he is very lenient.

A severity error is committed when a rater favours the low (undesirable) end oif the continuum-that is, when he is very harsh.

A central tendency error is committed when a rater avoids using extremes and favours the middle position-that is, rates everybody about average.

A logical error is closely related to the halo effect, but is not due to personal bias, It occurs when two traits, such as intelligence and socio-economic status, are closely related and the rater is influenced in his rating of one by the presence or absence of the other. Here, the rater thinks or may hold the false belief that highly intelligent persons possess a high socio-economic status.

(c)Attitude of Raters:Accurate observation is a very time consuming process. Unless the raters truly believe that there is some value to be derived from rating, they may consider them only as another administrative process and not to do a conscious job.

(d)Opportunity for Adequate Observation: This is the most serious error. The error is committed when the rater does not know well enough the pupil he is rating. The only reasonable thing to do is to refuse to rate the pupil on those trait about which you have little or no knowledge.

Uses of Rating Scale

1. They measure specified outcomes or objectives of education deemed to be significant or important to the teacher.

2. They evaluate procedures (such as paying on an instrument, working in the laboratory, typing, cooking, singing, oral reading, acting in a play), Products (such as typed letters, a speech, written themes, samples of handwriting, art work), and personal social development.

3. They help teachers to rate their students periodically on various characteristics such as punctuality, enthusiasm, cheerfulness, co-cooperativeness, consideration for others and other personality traits.

4. They can also be used by pupil to rate himself.

A Word of Caution

Rating scales tend to be less reliable, valid and efficient than tests; they should not therefore be used to evaluate outcomes that can be more easily and validly assessed through other procedures. Again, they are likely to reflect a teacher’s bias concerning a student rather than the student’s actual behaviour; therefore, they should be used with care and caution.

Advantages of Rating Scales

1. They can be used with a large number of students.

2. They tend to be very adaptable and flexible.

3. They can be efficient and economical in the use of a teacher’s time.

4. They can be comprehensive in the amount of information recorded.

5. They can help to reduce the subjectivity and unreliability that are usually associated with observation methods.

Improving the Rating Scale:

1. Identify educationally significant traits.

2. Clearly define the traits to be rated and the scale points to be used.

3. Avoid technical jargon. If slang will help convey the intent, use it by all means.

4. Express the traits to be rated as questions rather than as declarative statements.

5. If the line showing the continuum is used, it should follow immediately after the question.

6. Determine how discriminating you want the ratings and divide the continuum accordingly. (Three-to seven point intervals).

Improve the Rater:

1. The rater should know (a) the value of accurate and honest ratings, (b) the kinds of errors commonly committed and how they may be avoided or at least minimized.

2. Motivate the rater to do as accurate a job as possible.

3. Select persons who can provide objective, unbiased ratings. Avoid persons who are either over critical or solicitous.

Factors Improving Validity of Rating:

1. Take care in the construction of the scale and the selection of the raters.

2. Encourage raters not to rate those traits or persons for which or for whom they have insufficient or no knowledge.

3. Average judges’ ratings.

4. Rate only one trait or characteristics at a time.

5. To reduce the halo effect, vary the direction of the scale; that is, for some ratings, have the first position indicate a desirable trait, the last an undesirable trait, and vice versa.

6. Avoid making the extremes so atypical of behaviour that few raters will use these points.

7. Make the meaning of the intermediate levels closer to the neutral or average level rather than the extreme points.

8. The rater may be asked to quote instances in support of his judgement to avoid careless rating.

4. Interview:

Meaning of interview:

The word interview comes from Latin and middle French words meaning to “see between” or “see each other”. Generally, interview means a private meeting between people when questions are asked and answered. The person who answers the questions of an interview is called in interviewer. The person who asks the questions of our interview is called an interviewer. It suggests a meeting between two persons for the purpose of getting a view of each other or for knowing each other. When we normally think of an interview, we think a setting in which an employer tries to size up an applicant for a job.

`1. According to Gary Dessler, “An interview is a procedure designed to obtain information from a person’s oral response to oral inquiries.”

2. According to Thill and Bovee, “An interview is any planed conversation with a specific purpose involving two or more people”.

3. According to Dr. S. M. Amunuzzaman, “Interview is a very systematic method by which a person enters deeply into the life of even a stranger and can bring out needed information and data for the research purpose.”

Guidelines for Effective Interviewing:

Below are given some guidelines, if observed, can make interview more effective:

1. The interview should have a definite time schedule known to both the interviewers and the interviewee.

2. Interview should be conducted by the competent, trained and experienced interviewers.

3. The interviewers should be supplied with specific set of guidelines for conducting interview.

4. The interviewers should ensure an element of privacy for the interviewee.

5. A resume for all the candidates to be interviewed should be prepared and the same be made available to the interviewers before the interview starts.

6. The interview should not end abruptly but it should come to close tactfully providing satisfaction to the interviewee.

7. The interviewers should show their sensitivity to the interviewee s sentiments and also sympathetic attitude to him/her.

8. The interviewers should also evince emotional maturity and a stable personality during the interview session.

Some major findings from research studies on the interview seem worth mentioning:

1. Structured interview are more reliable than unstructured interviews.

2. Interviewers are influenced more by unfavorable than by favorable information.

3. Inter-rater reliability is increased when there is a greater amount of information about the job to be filled.

4. A bias IS established early in the interview, and this tends to be followed by either a favorable or an unfavorable decision.

5. Intelligence is the trait most validly estimated by an interview, but the interview information adds nothing to test data.

6. Interviewerscanexplamwhytheyfeelanapplicantislikelytobeanunsatisfactoryemployee but not why the applicant may be satisfactory.

7 Factual written data seem to be more important than physical appearance in determining judgments. This increases with interviewing experience.

8 An interviewee is given more extreme evaluation (positive/negative) when preceded by an interviewee of opposing value (positive/negative).

9 Interpersonal skills and motivation are probably best evaluated by the interview.

10. Allowing the applicant time to talk makes rapid first impressions less likely and provides a large behavior sample.

11. Nonverbal as well as verbal interactions influence decisions.

12. Experienced interviewers rank applicants in the same order, although they differ in the proportion that will accept. There is a tendency for experienced interviewers to be more selective than less experienced ones.

The interview process

Regardless of which type of interview you will have, all should follow the same process. We suggest keeping the following GOA²L Process in mind during an interview:

1. Greet the interviewer with a firm handshake, introduce yourself, and thank the interviewer for taking the time to meet with you.

2. Offer additional copies of your resume. Have several copies with you in case you'll meet with multiple interviewers. If you have previous work samples, a list of references, or other materials to share, you can bring them out now or hold onto them until you are asked about them.

3. Answer the questions that are asked of you, making sure to be honest, clear, professional, and concise. If you don't understand a particular question, it is always acceptable to ask for clarification.

4. Ask whatever questions you may have about the job or the company. Remember, this is your chance to find out if you really want this job for thiscompany. Not sure what to ask? Read more about asking your own questions.

5. Leave on a good note. When the interview is over, shake the interviewer's hand again. Thank the interviewer for taking time to talk with you, communicate your interest in being hired, and ask when you can expect to hear an answer about the job.

Structured Interview

This is also known as a formal interview (like a job interview).

The questions are asked in a set / standardized order and the interviewer will not deviate from the interview schedule or probe beyond the answers received (so they are not flexible).

These are based on structured, closed-ended questions.

Strengths

1. Structured interviews are easy to replicate as a fixed set of closed questions are used, which are easy to quantify – this means it is easy to test for reliability.

2. Structured interviews are fairly quick to conduct which means that many interviews can take place within a short amount of time. This means a large sample can be obtained resulting in the findings being representative and having the ability to be generalized to a large population.

Limitations

1. Structure interviews are not flexible. This means new questions cannot be asked impromptu (i.e. during the interview) as an interview schedule must be followed.

2. The answers from structured interviews lack detail as only closed questions are asked which generates quantitative data. This means a research will won't know why a person behaves in a certain way.

Unstructured Interview

These are sometimes referred to as ‘discovery interviews’ & are more like a ‘guided conservation’ than a strict structured interview. They are sometimes called informal interviews.

An interview schedule might not be used, and even if one is used, they will contain open-ended questions that can be asked in any order. Some questions might be added / missed as the Interview progresses.

Strengths

1. Unstructured interviews are more flexible as questions can be adapted and changed depending on the respondents’ answers. The interview can deviate from the interview schedule.

2. Unstructured interviews generate qualitative data through the use of open questions. This allows the respondent to talk in some depth, choosing their own words. This helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person’s understanding of a situation.

3. They also have increased validity because it gives the interviewer the opportunity to probe for a deeper understanding, ask for clarification & allow the interviewee to steer the direction of the interview etc.

Limitations

1. It can be time consuming to conduct an unstructured interview and analyze the qualitative data (using methods such as thematic analysis).

2. Employing and training interviewers is expensive, and not as cheap as collecting data via questionnaires. For example, certain skills may be needed by the interviewer. These include the ability to establish rapport & knowing when to probe.

Group Interview

This refers to interviews where a dozen or so respondents are interviewed together – also known as a ‘focus group’. This role of the interviewer is to make sure the group interact with each other and do not drift off topic.

A researcher must be highly skilled to conduct a group interview. For example, certain skills may be needed by the interviewer including the ability to establish rapport and knowing when to probe.

Strengths

1. Group interviews generate qualitative data through the use of open questions. This allows the respondents to talk in some depth, choosing their own words. This helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person’s understanding of a situation.

2. They also have increased validity because some participants may feel more comfortable being with others as they are used to talking in groups in real life (i.e. it's more natural).

Limitations

1. The researcher must ensure that they keep all the interviewees details confidential and respect their privacy. This is difficult when using a group interview. For example, the researcher cannot guarantee that the other people in the group will keep information private.

2. Group interviews are less reliable as they use open questions and may deviate from the interview schedule making them difficult to repeat.

2. Group interviews may sometimes lack validity as participants may lie to impress the other group members. They may conform to peer pressure and give false answers.

QUESTIONNAIRE/INVENTORIES

A questionnaire is a list of planned written questions related to a particular topic or series of topics. Space is provided for the reply to each question.

In Structured (closed-end) type of questionnaire, the answers are checked or underlined by the respondent. In the unstructured (open-end) type, the respondent is allowed to make free responses to the questions. The inventory comes under the first type.

In practice, when we want to collect the respondent’s family data, personal data, health data, special school activities, educational and vocational plans, etc. When we want to evaluate the respondent’s interests, attitudes, opinions, feelings, and other personal social adjustments, we present him a series of questions or statements in the form of a check list. Such self-report techniques are generally referred to as inventories.

Constructing Questionnaires or Inventories

The following points should be observed:

1. Use the questionnaire or inventory when it is most appropriate, e.g., when

a) The group may soon break up because it is temporary;

b) The group is together for the first or last time;

c) There is insufficient time for individual interviews;

d) There are too many to be interviewed;

e) There are too many people who cannot be reached personally;

f) An independent response from each person is desired;

g) The desired data are either non-existent or not conveniently available;

h) Answers to a comparable set of questions are desired;

2. Define the general purposes and specific objectives; e.g.,

a) To ensure background data on an individual or group which may be valued in accounting for classroom behaviour;

b) To secure a pencil-and-paper aid in evaluating the extent to which educational objectives are being realized;

c) To secure data which will be pertinent to planning a curriculum;

d) To secure a picture of the status of an experience, a unit, a project, a study or a group.

3. Construct appropriate questions or statements;

a) A Question or statement should be clearly stated. A clear questions one who i) vocabulary is understandable ,ii) phrasing is simple and straight-forward, iii) terms are unequivocal, and iv) print is readable.

b) It should not be double or triple barreled.

c) Do not confine the respondent to a choice which does not describe his position; e.g.,

Poor: when you sew, do you prefer a sewing mechine ( ) or a needle ( )? Check one.

Better: Do you sew? Yes/No.

If yes, do you prefer a sewing machine ( ) or needle ( )? (check one.)

d) Do not include too many questions or statements.

e) They should be so written as to facilitate the tabulation and presentation of findings.

4. Arrange questions or statements in appropriate groupings. This is to ensure a mind-set and to make the tabulation more systematic and interpretation of the question simpler.

5. Design an appealing format. It must be well-printed, well-spaced and attractive-looking, which encourages the respondent to answer questions fully and with interest.

6. Check the questionnaire or inventory for adequacy. This is to eliminate spelling, grammatical and typographical errors.

Administering the Questionnaire or Inventory

For good administration, the conditions are----

(a) Insuring a good climate for proper administration;

(b) Stating clear purposes;

Specimen:

(i) (A Sample of physical and health education inventory)

Directions: If you agree with the statement, encircle A; if you disagree, encircle D; if you are uncertain, encircle U. There is no time limit.

A U D (a) I enjoy playing badminton.

A U D (b) I like to learn a course in First Aid.

A U D (c) I would like to play the game which includes boys and girls.

(ii) (A sample from Bell’s Adjustment Inventory)

Directions: If your answer is positive, encircle yes; if negative, encircle no; if you are uncertain, encircle ‘?’ there is no time limit.

Yes No? (a) Do you enjoy social gatherings because you want to be with other people?

Yes No? (b) Does criticism disturb you greatly?

Yes No? (c) Are you often in a state of excitement?

The advantages and disadvantages of questionnaires

The advantages of questionnaires

Practical
Large amounts of information can be collected from a large number of people in a short period of time and in a relatively cost effective way
Can be carried out by the researcher or by any number of people with limited affect to its validity and reliability
The results of the questionnaires can usually be quickly and easily quantified by either a researcher or through the use of a software package
Can be analysed more 'scientifically' and objectively than other forms of research
When data has been quantified, it can be used to compare and contrast other research and may be used to measure change
Positivists believe that quantitative data can be used to create new theories and / or test existing hypotheses

The disadvantages of questionnaires

Is argued to be inadequate to understand some forms of information - i.e. changes of emotions, behaviour, feelings etc.
Phenomenologists state that quantitative research is simply an artificial creation by the researcher, as it is asking only a limited amount of information without explanation
Lacks validity
There is no way to tell how truthful a respondent is being
There is no way of telling how much thought a respondent has put in
The respondent may be forgetful or not thinking within the full context of the situation
People may read differently into each question and therefore reply based on their own interpretation of the question - i.e. what is 'good' to someone may be 'poor' to someone else, therefore there is a level of subjectivity that is not acknowledged
There is a level of researcher imposition, meaning that when developing the questionnaire, the researcher is making their own decisions and assumptions as to what is and is not important...therefore they may be missing something that is of importance

Rubrics as an assessment tool

A rubrics is an assessment tool for communicating expectations of quality. It is designed to reflect the processes and outputs of learning, to support student self-reflection and self-assessment as well as communication between student, teacher and parents. It is usually in the form of a matrix with a list of indicators and a range of grading to rate the performance. A rubric provides a basis for self-evaluation, reflection, and pre-evaluation.

Rubrics are generally thought to promote more consistent grading and to develop self-evaluation skills in students as they monitor their performance relative to the rubric. Rubrics can be used at different phases of assessment. They are during the:

Pre-assessment phase: to clarify expectations and grading methods to students.
Assessment phase: to help teachers to remain focused on the preset standards of performance and objectively assess the students.
Post-assessment phase: to provide scored rubric with clear explanation of the grade to students, and to make them aware of their strength and weakness.

Below is given a rubric that can be used for assessing the problem solving skill in mathematics. In this rubric the rating indicates the quality of learning as follows:

4	3	2	1
Demonstrates a thorough Understanding of the Main concepts.	Demonstrates an understanding of the main concepts.	Demonstrates a partial understanding of the main concepts.	Demonstrates little understanding of the main concepts.
Systematic working with correct answers.	Systematic and most answers are correct.	Working needs to improve, some correct answers	Very weak evidence of working, a few correct answers.
Mathematical terms and symbols are used appropriately.	Mathematical terms and symbols are used appropriately.	Some mathematical terms and symbols are used correctly.	Mathematical terms and symbols used are weak.
Through analysis of the problem with accurate solution.	Analysis of the problem is evident, considerable accuracy.	Analyzes the problem with some success, accuracy needs to improve.	Very little evidence of analysis.

Teachers can modify the indicators, in this rubric as requirement, depending on the class, concept involved, type of problem and type of assessment.

Rubrics have become popular with teachers as a means of communicating expectations for an assignment, providing focused feedback on works in progress, and grading final products. Although educators tend to define the word “rubric” in slightly different ways, Heidi Andrade’s commonly accepted definition is a document that articulates the expectations for an assignment by listing the criteria, or what counts, and describing levels of quality from excellent to poor.

Rubrics are often used to grade student work but they can serve another, more important, role as well: Rubrics can teach as well as evaluate. When used as part of a formative, student-centered approach to assessment, rubrics have the potential to help students develop understanding and skill, as well as make dependable judgments about the quality of their own work. Students should be able to use rubrics in many of the same ways that teachers use them—to clarify the standards for a quality performance, and to guide ongoing feedback about progress toward those standards.

In education terminology, rubric means "a scoring guide used to evaluate the quality of students' constructed responses". Rubrics usually contain evaluative criteria, quality definitions for those criteria at particular levels of achievement, and a scoring strategy. They are often presented in table format and can be used by teachers when marking, and by students when planning their work.

A scoring rubric is an attempt to communicate expectations of quality around a task. In many cases, scoring rubrics are used to delineate consistent criteria for grading. Because the criteria are public, a scoring rubric allows teachers and students alike to evaluate criteria, which can be complex and subjective. A scoring rubric can also provide a basis for self-evaluation, reflection, and peer review. It is aimed at accurate and fair assessment, fostering understanding, and indicating a way to proceed with subsequent learning/teaching. This integration of performance and feedback is called ongoing assessment or formative assessment.

Several common features of scoring rubrics can be distinguished, according to Bernie Dodge and Nancy Pickett:

· focus on measuring a stated objective (performance, behavior, or quality)

· use a range to rate performance

· Contain specific performance characteristics arranged in levels indicating either the developmental sophistication of the strategy used or the degree to which a standard has been met.

Components of a scoring rubric

Scoring rubrics include one or more dimensions on which performance is rated, definitions and examples that illustrate the attribute(s) being measured, and a rating scale for each dimension. Dimensions are generally referred to as criteria, the rating scale as levels, and definitions as descriptors.

Herman, Aschbacher, and Wintersdistinguish the following elements of a scoring rubric:

· One or more traits or dimensions that serve as the basis for judging the student response

· Definitions and examples to clarify the meaning of each trait or dimension

· A scale of values on which to rate each dimension

· Standards of excellence for specified performance levels accompanied by models or examples of each level

Since the 1980s, many scoring rubrics have been presented in a graphic format, typically as a grid. Studies of scoring rubric effectiveness now consider the efficiency of a grid over, say, a text-based list of criteria.

Steps to create a scoring rubric

Scoring rubrics may help students become thoughtful evaluators of their own and others’ work and may reduce the amount of time teachers spend evaluating student work. Here is a seven-step method to creating and using a scoring rubric for writing assignments:^[4]

1. Have students look at models of good versus "not-so-good" work. A teacher should provide sample assignments of variable quality for students to review.

2. List the criteria to be used in the scoring rubric and allow for discussion of what counts as quality work. Asking for student feedback during the creation of the list also allows the teacher to assess the students’ overall writing experiences.

3. Articulate gradations of quality. These hierarchical categories should concisely describe the levels of quality (ranging from bad to good) or development (ranging from beginning to mastery). They can be based on the discussion of the good versus not-so-good work samples or immature versus developed samples. Using a conservative number of gradations keeps the scoring rubric user-friendly while allowing for fluctuations that exist within the average range ("Creating Rubrics").

4. Practice on models. Students can test the scoring rubrics on sample assignments provided by the instructor. This practice can build students' confidence by teaching them how the instructor would use the scoring rubric on their papers. It can also aid student/teacher agreement on the reliability of the scoring rubric.

5. Ask for self and peer-assessment.

6. Revise the work on the basis of that feedback. As students are working on their assignment, they can be stopped occasionally to do a self-assessment and then give and receive evaluations from their peers. Revisions should be based on the feedback they receive.

7. Use teacher assessment, which means using the same scoring rubric the students used to assess their work.

A rubric is a list or chart that describes the criteria that one uses to evaluate or rate performance. Rubrics are helpful tools in assessing student learning, especially for areas like behavior or performance, which can be difficult to capture in more traditional assessment techniques such as surveys.

Challenges of using rubrics include:

Developing a tool can be time intensive
Need to prepare rubric well ahead of time so students are aware of the expectations
Need to ensure intra-rater and inter-rater reliability
Need to plan into learning experience an opportunity to demonstrate learning
Less flexible – harder to change mid-data collection, but can change from project to project as rubric tool is refined

The advantages of using a rubric include:

Help to clarify vague or fuzzy goals or criteria
Can help quantify behaviors, thoughts, and performances, which are often hard to capture but can be observed or demonstrated through an artifact
Help students understand what is expected of them and at which level they are performing
Help students self-improve by comparing their work against the rubric
Improve efficiency of rating or scoring student learning by keeping the rater focused on what is important
Allow for accurate, unbiased, and consistent scoring
Provide descriptive feedback to students
Provide detailed results in student learning when rubrics results are aggregated
Provide both qualitative and quantitative data
Lend themselves to people who are more comfortable with words than numbers due to the use of descriptions

Holistic Rubric Advantages

Quick scoring and they provide an overview of student achievement.
Easily obtain a single dimension if that is adequate for your purpose.

Holistic Rubric Disadvantages

Not very useful to help plan instruction because they lack a detailed analysis of a students strengths or weaknesses of a product.
Do not provide very detailed information.

Analytical Rubric Advantages

Provides meaningful and specific feedback along multiple dimensions.
Scoring tends to be more consistent across students and grades.
Easier for the teacher to share with students and parents about certain strengths and weaknesses.
Helps students to better understand the nature of quality work.

Analytical Rubric Disadvantages

It is more difficult to construct analytical rubrics for all tasks.
Tends to be quite time consuming.
Lower consistency among different raters.

Advantages of Rubrics in General

Forces the teacher to clarify criteria in detail.
Useful feedback for the effectiveness of instruction.
Motivates students to reach the standards specified.
Narrows the gap between instruction and assessment.
Flexible tool, having uses across many contexts, in many grade levels and for a wide range of abilities.
Potential to be transferred into grades if necessary.
Can offer a method of consistency in scoring by clearly defining the performance criteria.
Giving the child more control of their own learning process.
Potential to open communication with caregivers.

Disadvantages of Rubrics in General

Rubrics can also restrict the students mind power in that they will feel that they need to complete the assignment strictly to the rubric instead of taking the initiative to explore their learning.
If the criteria that is in the rubric is too complex, students may feel overwhelmed with the assignment, and little success may be imminent.
For the teacher creating the rubric, they may find the task of developing, testing, evaluating, and updating time consuming.

ACHIEVEMENT TEST:

Achievement tests are the most frequently used evaluation tools in the educational setting belonging to the paper and pencil category.

The term achievement refers to the acquisition of all the behavioural changes belonging to the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains.

* It is an instrument designed to measure relative accomplishment in the specified areas of learning.

* Ebel defines” Achievement test is one designed to measure students group of somebody of knowledge or is proficiency in certain skills.

* Freeeman defines test of Educational achievement as “designed to measure knowledge, understanding, and skills in a specified subject or group of subject”.

Characteristics of a good test

Test preparation activities which promote quality, long-term learning are appropriate, even essential. Good test-taking skills and appropriate content learning can reduce the likelihood that extraneous factors will influence students’ test scores. The various characteristics of a good test are:

§ It can be tried out and selected on the basis of its difficulty level and discriminating power.

§ Directly related to the educational objectives.

§ It should possess description of measure behavior in realistic and practical terms.

§ Contains a sufficient number of test items for each measured behavior; concerned with important and useful matter; comprehensive, brief, precise and clear.

§ It should be divided into different knowledge and skills according to behavior to be measured.

§ Standardized the items and made instructions clear so that different users can utilize it.

§ Rules and norms have to be developed so that various age groups can use at various levels.

§ It provides equivalent and comparable forms of the test.

§ A test manual has to be prepared, which can act as a guide for administering and scoring.

Challenges of using rubrics include:

· Developing a tool can be time intensive

· Need to prepare rubric well ahead of time so students are aware of the expectations

· Need to ensure intra-rater and inter-rater reliability

· Need to plan into learning experience an opportunity to demonstrate learning

· Less flexible – harder to change mid-data collection, but can change from project to project as rubric tool is refined

The advantages of using a rubric include:

· Help to clarify vague or fuzzy goals or criteria

· Can help quantify behaviors, thoughts, and performances, which are often hard to capture but can be observed or demonstrated through an artifact

· Help students understand what is expected of them and at which level they are performing

· Help students self-improve by comparing their work against the rubric

· Improve efficiency of rating or scoring student learning by keeping the rater focused on what is important

· Allow for accurate, unbiased, and consistent scoring

· Provide descriptive feedback to students

· Provide detailed results in student learning when rubrics results are aggregated

· Provide both qualitative and quantitative data

· Lend themselves to people who are more comfortable with words than numbers due to the use of descriptions

Holistic Rubric Advantages

· Quick scoring and they provide an overview of student achievement.

· Easily obtain a single dimension if that is adequate for your purpose.
Holistic Rubric Disadvantages

· Not very useful to help plan instruction because they lack a detailed analysis of a students strengths or weaknesses of a product.

· Do not provide very detailed information.
Analytical Rubric Advantages

· Provides meaningful and specific feedback along multiple dimensions.

· Scoring tends to be more consistent across students and grades.

· Easier for the teacher to share with students and parents about certain strengths and weaknesses.

· Helps students to better understand the nature of quality work.
Analytical Rubric Disadvantages

· It is more difficult to construct analytical rubrics for all tasks.

· Tends to be quite time consuming.

· Lower consistency among different raters.
Advantages of Rubrics in General

· Forces the teacher to clarify criteria in detail.

· Useful feedback for the effectiveness of instruction.

· Motivates students to reach the standards specified.

· Narrows the gap between instruction and assessment.

· Flexible tool, having uses across many contexts, in many grade levels and for a wide range of abilities.

· Potential to be transferred into grades if necessary.

· Can offer a method of consistency in scoring by clearly defining the performance criteria.

· Giving the child more control of their own learning process.

· Potential to open communication with caregivers.

Disadvantages of Rubrics in General

· Rubrics can also restrict the students mind power in that they will feel that they need to complete the assignment strictly to the rubric instead of taking the initiative to explore their learning.

· If the criteria that is in the rubric is too complex, students may feel overwhelmed with the assignment, and little success may be imminent.

· For the teacher creating the rubric, they may find the task of developing, testing, evaluating, and updating time consuming.

2.4: ACHIEVEMENT TEST:

Achievement tests are the most frequently used evaluation tools in the educational setting belonging to the paper and pencil category.

The term achievement refers to the acquisition of all the behavioural changes belonging to the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains.

* It is an instrument designed to measure relative accomplishment in the specified areas of learning.

* Ebel defines” Achievement test is one designed to measure students group of somebody of knowledge or is proficiency in certain skills.

* Freeeman defines test of Educational achievement as “designed to measure knowledge, understanding, and skills in a specified subject or group of subject”.

Characteristics of a good test

§ It can be tried out and selected on the basis of its difficulty level and discriminating power.

§ Directly related to the educational objectives.

§ It should possess description of measure behavior in realistic and practical terms.

§ Contains a sufficient number of test items for each measured behavior; concerned with important and useful matter; comprehensive, brief, precise and clear.

§ It should be divided into different knowledge and skills according to behavior to be measured.

§ Standardized the items and made instructions clear so that different users can utilize it.

§ Rules and norms have to be developed so that various age groups can use at various levels.

§ It provides equivalent and comparable forms of the test.

§ A test manual has to be prepared, which can act as a guide for administering and scoring.

Need for Achievement test:

1. To best the understanding of the student about the concept, principles, laws and theories of a subject achievement tests are needed.

2. It is necessary to know the level of knowledge, understanding, application and skill of the student.

3. To test the basic knowledge of the student regarding the subject.

4. To identify students of maximum and minimum level achievements to provide proper guidance to them.

Functions of Achievement tests:

1) Achievement tests are frequently employed to check and attainment of minimum performance of students.

2) They are important tools in counseling. They are helpful in assigning grades.

3) They also constitute an important feature of remedial training programme.

4) For all types of learners, the periodic Performance of students.

5) It helps in the selection of the student they are helpful in the placement and Classification.

6) For all types of learners, the periodic administration of well-constructed and properly

Chosen achievement test serves to create love in learning.

7) Achievement tests are employed as aids in the improvement of instructional techniques and

the revision of curriculum content.

STRENGTH OF ACHIEVEMENT TESTS:

1. They are valid measure of achievement.

2. They are reliable measuring instruments because of their objectivity.

3. They are objectively and accurately scored.

4. They are easy to administer.

5. Because of frequent requisitions, they are improved at intervals.

6. They are provided with norms, which enable the teacher to compare individual or groups of individuals or even schools.

WEAKNESSES OF ACHIEVEMENT TESTS:

1. They lead to undesirable study habits because students try to memorize bits of information with no regard to logical sequence and reasoning of facts.

2. They encourage uncritical thinking because they provide no score for elaboration in meaning.

3. Miss-interpretation of results may lead to erroneous conclusions about individuals.

4. Many important and significant aims of education can’t be measured, if items are restricted to factual information.

ESTABLISHING CLASSROOM ACHIEVEMENT TEST VALIDITY:

For establishing the validity of teacher-made achievement test in any subject, the following criteria’s may be adopted:-

1. Use objective as a basis for question development.

2. Use accepted question development principles.

3. If multiple behaviours are being sampled, they should be in proper proportion.

4. Extraneous sources of influence on test responses need to be eliminated or controlled.

5. Extraneous sources of distraction during test administration must be controlled.

6. Verify correctness, appropriateness, and accuracy of answers to items and scoring of tasks.

7. Assessment materials must be appropriate to the level of functioning and experience.

8. Check the reliability of the measures used.

9. Where possible, check test scores against external criteria.

10. Test items that are related to change during instruction should be retained for future use.

11. Use the most appropriate format.

TYPES OF ACHIEVEMENT TESTS:

1) Teacher made tests

2) Standardized Achievement tests.

Teacher made tests are classified into oral, written and performance test.

ORAL TEST:

The process of conducting the test orally ie., asking the questions orally and receiving the answer orally from the students is called oral test.

The oral examiner can pose a question and modify the same it is not understood. Because of this flexibility an examiner can probe the depth of the students understanding better through oral test.

Uses of oral test (Merits):

1) It helps in testing the previous knowledge of the students. Based on the previous knowledge, the teacher may easily impart the new knowledge.

2) Oral questions put time to time, help the teacher in judging whether the students are following the lesson or not.

3) The teacher may easily pay individual attention by distributing oral questions all over the class.

4) Oral questions help much in carrying out recapitulation and revision work through proper practice or drill.

5) Oral questions helpful in fixing the learning of new principles and formulae.

6) It encourages healthy competition among the students.

7) Oral questions help in developing the habit of exactness and precision.

8) Oral questions help in creating as well as maintain interests of the students in the study.

9) Oral questions develop the habit of quick learning and thinking and therefore proves a very economical device.

10) It is used at the lower stages where it is difficult for the students to give written response.

DEMERITS:

1) It is a time consuming one.

2) It does not extensively or efficiently measure all the abilities of the learner.

3) It permits inferences and favoritism of teachers.

4) It leaves no permanent objective record of pupils performance.

5) Its use on a mass scale is highly limited.

6) It is highly subjective.

7) It is not equally fair and just to all pupils.

WRITTEN TEST:

The test in which the students respond to the teacher in writing is called a written test.

Advantages:

1) It gives us a most stable, reliable and valid type of evaluation.

2) It can be played carefully, keeping in view objectives, content and learning experiences.

3) The answer can be assessed with perfect objectivity and more validly and reliably with the help of a marking scheme and a scoring key.

4) Answer books can be preserved for a long time, making measurement possible.

5) It helps teachers to plan and guide and instructional programme.

6) Many students can be evaluated at a time and at various places.

Disadvantages:

1) Understanding may not be judged.

2) Written tests preparation takes a long time. So, it cannot be taken as a continuous part of education.

3) Certain objectives such as skill in handling apparatus, recording of the reading of an instrument etc., cannot be evaluated.

4) Written tests require a considerable amount of expenditure.

PERFORMANCE TEST:

The test, which measures the performance of students in psycho-motor tasks, is known as performance test.

Example-1: Students learn how to conduct experiments in laboratory smoothly and systematically. The performance test measures to what extent students have mastered the conduct of experiment with required speed, accuracy and strength.

Example-2: Teacher provides learning experience in the art playing musical instruments with a specific objectives. Teacher conducts performance tests to assess to what extent students have mastered theart of playing musical instrument.

In a performance test two aspects are involved. One is assess the process of performance, and the second one is to assess the product of performance.

I. The process of performance of any psycho-motor act involves:

Doing with correct speed.
Doing with required accuracy.

3 .Doing with required strength.

4. Doing with proper coordination between various acts.

5. Doing by handling the equipment properly.

II. Test of product performance involves:

1. Quantity of the product with required specifications i.e. size colour combinational getup.

2. Properties of the product desired.

3. Raga, Tala, Laya, and Swara in music etc.

Tools to be used in performance test:

Observing the performance by using observational schedule.
Rating scale.
Check list.
Verification of records.
Interview the students with interview schedule.
Video recording technique.

Importance of Performance test:

1. Performance test is essential to assess to what extent the objectives related to psychomotor task are realized.

2. Performance test helps the teacher to know the weakness of students in performing the given task.

3. It helps to provide practice to get mastery in performance.

4. It helps the teacher to correct the mistakes in performance.

5. It helps to judge the quality of performance of the students.

6. It helps the teacher in giving feedback to the learner regarding his performance.

7. It helps the students to know their physiological limit in performing the psychomotor activity.

8. It helps the teacher to provide practice session individually to master the skill in performance.

Comments

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