TYPES OF EVALUATION
1) FORMATIVE EVALUATION:
According to Tonner (1977),” Formative evaluation refers to the use of
tests and other evaluative procedures while the course and instructional
programme is in progress.”
When the students are said to be in well
state regarding knowledge, the process of teaching applied to learn anything is
called formative and the method of judging how much the reactions of teaching
are made to students is evaluation. Therefore, the purpose of formative
evaluation is to monitor the instructional process and not designed to make
final judgments. Hence, in formative evaluation teaching process is made and
learning is judged.
E. g. Unit tests, class tests,
quizzes etc.
Uses of Formative Evaluation:
1) It provides information to
teachers for modifying instruction and teaching.
2) It helps to prescribe group
and individual remedial programmes.
3) It is helpful in monitoring
pupil’s learning progress.
4) It provides feedback to both
the teachers and pupils.
5) It facilities retention and
transfer of learning.
6) It enables the teachers to
adjust their instruction according to the need of the students.
7) It helps the teacher for
correcting learning deficiencies.
8) Formative evaluation also
reinforces the learning of high achievers.
9) It helps in better
performance is the simulative evaluation.
10) Formative test can be also
be used as a self-evaluation device by the children.
11) It provides immediate
feedback to the children.
12) It is also helpful in
diagnosing child’s strength and weaknesses.
2) SUMMATIVE EVALUATION: Summative Evaluation is a later process occurs
in the end of a session or term to measure the achievement of pupils. Overall
results of teaching-learning process can be obtained through this short of
evaluation.
Term tests annual tests and external
examinations conducted by school or public agency are the essential parts of
Summative Evaluation. Hence, summative evaluation is either external type or
internal type of evaluation.
- Formative Evaluation
serves refinement purpose during teaching-learning process, but summative
Evaluation may be said the evaluation of refined product.
- When student become fully
familiar with the whole syllabus and test of the whole syllabus is made
summative Evaluation occurs in the end of academic year session to promote
students to next class.
- It is identification
document of failure and the success of the class indicated promotion to
the next class is also done through this document.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FORMATIVE
AND SUMMATIVE EVALLUATION
|
Formative Evaluation |
Summative Evaluation |
|
1) The purpose of formative
evaluation is to diagnose the strength and weaknesses of the pupils. |
1) The purpose is
classification and promotion of students. |
|
2) Evidences secured by it
are used for further improvement of instruction and students better progress. |
2) Its results are used for
certification and passing judgment on pupils’ achievement. |
|
3) Its focus is on
improvement of pupil’s achievement. |
3) It focusses is on
measurement of pupil’s achievement. |
|
4) It refers to continuous
evaluation by means of unit tests, assignments etc. |
4) It refers to term tests,
annual tests and external examinations. |
|
5) It is an integral part of
teaching learning process. |
5) It is treated as an end of
the course activity. |
|
6) It provides continuous feedback
to both pupil and teacher. 7) It is done during the
course of instruction. |
6) It does not provided feedback.
7) It is done at the end of
academic session years. |
|
8) It gives relevant
information which helps to improve classroom instructions. |
8) It provides the overall
results of the teaching learning process. |
|
9) It results are used for
providing remedial measures and enrichment programmes for slow and figted
learners respectively. |
9) It results are used for
classification placement and prediction for future success. |
DIAGNOSTIC TEST IN
EDUCATION
Meaning: A
diagnostic test has been defined as “one designed to locate the particular
source of a person’s difficulties in learning especially in school subjects”.
Importance:
1.
It
provides the feed-back to the teacher as well as to the students regarding
their strength and weaknesses.
2.
It helps
teachers to modify their teaching learning strategies. So as to make them more
effective in the light of the feedback.
3.
Diagnostic test is an integral part of overall
evaluation.
4.
Hypothesizing the probable cause for these
weakness and difficulties.
5.
Applying the remedial teaching for removing
these weaknesses and difficulties.
Steps of construction in Diagnostic test:
1.
Planning:
a)
Identifying areas of weakness or learning difficulties: It
may be based on the findings of the weakness of the student in classroom drill
and practice work, homework and assignment, classroom behaviour of the student
etc. The performance and behaviour of the studen5t of the student of the class
during the evaluation encounters may provide clue /evidence of some or the
other types of weaknesses and learning difficulties suffered by the students in
one or the other learning areas of the subject.
b)
Content analysis: The content of
the sub-units / a single concept should then be further analyzed to determine.
The pre-requisite behaviour i.e., the previous knowledge, skills etc., needed
for the learning of a particular sub-unit or a single concept.
The expected behaviour
demonstrated by the learner after learning the contents related to that unit or
a single concept.
c)
Deciding about the nature of the items of the
test: A proper decision should then be taken about the nature and
numbers of the items of the diagnostic test since it should be as exhaustive,
detailed and lengthy as possible hence there must more weightage to the short
and very short answer type questions in comparison to the large and essay type
questions.
d)
Taking decision about necessary administrative
measures: It is better to take decision regarding various administrative
functioning of the test before sitting for its construction like, the time
limit, direction for the proper administration of test, scoring and
interpretation etc.
2.
Construction of Diagnostic test: In
view of the things planned of the planning stage now attempts should be made to
select appropriate items for being included in the proposed diagnostic test.
This selection is mainly focused on the following aspects.
i). The nature of the contents of the sub-unit/a single concept.
ii). The pre-requisite behaviour is needed for learning the sub-unit/concept.
3.
Administration and interpretation of the
diagnostic test: The necessary directions related to the proper
administration of the test should be clearly explained or demonstrated to the
students. When they have finished their task, the answer sheets along with the
test paper should be carefully collected for the analysis and interpretation of
their response. For this purpose these may be scored on the basis of the
scoring key and model answers suggested in the constructed test. The
interpretation about the weaknesses and strength of the students related to
their performances in the learning of a sub-unit then is made on the basis of
their scores on the total test items, parts of the test or individual items.
Uses of diagnostic test:
1.
Diagnostic test serves guides to the attainment
of the students.
2.
Diagnostic test help in isolating difficulties
of students individually.
3.
Diagnostic test help to group students for
remedial or special coaching.
4.
Diagnostic test serves as guide to locate the
attainments of difficulties of the students.
5.
Point out inadequacies in specific skills.
6.
Locate areas in which individual instruction is
required.
7.
Serve as a basis for improving instructional
methods, instructional materials and learning procedures.
PROGNOSTIC TEST
·
Diagnosis:
Identifying the nature or cause of some phenomenon.
Example: The diagnosis was
determined after numerous tests.
·
Prognosis: A Prediction about how something (as an illness) will develop.
Example: The prognosis the doctor gave the patient was hopeful.
Prognosis derived from the Greek words means
that “fore-knowing, foreseeing”. It
is a medical term for predicting the
likely outcome of one’s current standing. When applied to large statistical
populations, prognostic estimates can be very accurate: for example the
statement “45% of patients with severe septic shock will die within 28 days”
can be made with some confidence, because previous research found that this
proportion of patients died. However, it is much harder to translate this into
a prognosis for an individual patient: additional information is needed to
determine whether a patient belongs to the 45% who will die, or to the 55% who
survive.
In education, a
prognostic test is an aptitude test. The purpose of a prognostic test is to
predict achievement in a specific subject area.
A weather
prognosticator is a weather forecaster-someone who predicts what the weather
will be.
Diagnosis is usually
something told you by a doctor regarding what is wrong with you, prognosis is
how long it may take to cure what is wrong, e.g. The doctor checks the old man his diagnosis was a slipped disc and his
prognosis that only rest would alleviate the pain. Or to do with work being
done e.g. The prognosis was that the work on re-furbishing the property would
take longer, as the diagnosis by the surveyor was that the house was riddled
with woodworm.
Prognostic markers (biomarkers) are
characteristics that help to identify or categorize people with different risks
of specific future outcomes. They may be simple clinical measures such as body
mass index, but are more often pathological, biochemical, molecular or genetic
measures or attributes. Identifying those who are or who are not at risk can
facilitate intervention choice, and aid patient counselling.
One of the uses of tests
is to predict how individuals behave in
certain situations. For example, when tests are used to select students for
colleges, the major purpose is to forecast how well students will do when they
actually go to college. One group of aptitude tests is made up of tests
designed to predict readiness to learn or probable degree of success in some
subject or segment of education. These are called Prognostic tests.
Prognostic tests are
intended for use in prognosis or prediction of future success in specific
subjects of the school curriculum. As they usually test the background skills
and abilities found to be prerequisite for success in the particular subject,
prognostic tests are more common among subjects in which success can be rather
well defined in terms of certain basic abilities. They also frequently test
some of the aptitude factors that are not directly dependent upon previous
training of a specific topic. Therefore, prognostic tests, probably most
closely related to aptitude tests, but not unrelated to inventory tests, are
more properly classified as educational tests, than as intelligence tests,
though they unquestionably do measure certain special aspects of intelligence.
Test is to predict achievement in a specific subject area.
PROGNOSTIC TEST: Progress tests are longitudinal, feedback oriented educational assessment tools for the evaluation of development and
sustainability of cognitive knowledge during a learning process. A progress
test is a written knowledge exam (usually involving multiple choice questions)
that is usually administered to all students in the "A" program at
the same time and at regular intervals (usually twice to four times yearly)
throughout the entire academic program. The test samples the complete knowledge
domain expected of new graduates upon completion of their courses, regardless
of the year level of the student). The differences between students’ knowledge
levels show in the test scores; the further a student has progressed in the
curriculum the higher the scores. As a result, these resultant scores provide a
longitudinal, repeated measures, curriculum-independent assessment of the
objectives (in knowledge) of the entire programme.
Diagnosis Definition:
Identifying the nature or
cause of some phenomenon
Examples:
The diagnosis was
determined after numerous tests.
VS.
Prognosis Definition:
A prediction about how
something (as an illness) will develop
Examples: the prognosis the doctor gave the patient was hopeful
Advantages
1. Prognosis tests provide a rich source of information: the comprehensive
nature in combination with the cross-sectional and longitudinal design offers a
wealth of information both for individual learners as well as for curriculum
evaluations.[1]
2. Prognosis Testing fosters knowledge retention: the repeated
testing of the same comprehensive domain of knowledge means that there is no
point testing facts that could be remembered if studied the night before. Long
term knowledge and knowledge retention is fostered because item content remains
relevant long after the knowledge has been learned. Progress Testing removes
the need for resit examinations: every new test occasion is a renewed
opportunity to demonstrate growth of knowledge.
3. Prognosis Testing allows early detection of high achievers:
some learners perform (far) beyond the expected level of their phase in
training (e.g. they might have had relevant previous other training) and,
depending on their performance, individual and more speeded pathways through
the curriculum could be offered.
4.
Prognosis Testing brings stability in assessment procedures: curriculum
changes, changes in content, have no consequence for the progress test provided
the end outcomes are unchanged.
5. Prognosis Testing provides excellent benchmarking opportunities: progress tests are not limited to a
single school nor to PBL curricula and evaluations can easily be done to
compare graduates and the effectiveness of different curriculum approaches.
Disadvantages
1. Naturally, there are disadvantages.
The required resources for test development and scoring and the need for a
central organization are two very important ones.
2. Scoring, psychometric procedures for
reducing test difficulty variation and standard setting procedures are
more complex in progress testing.
3. Finally prognosis tests do not
work in heterogeneous programs with early specialization (like in many health
sciences programs). In more homogenous programs, such as most medical programs,
they work really well and pay off in relation to driving learning and use of
resources.
Criterion
referenced test (CRT)
According to Popham W.J. and Husedk
T.R Criterion referenced measure as— “which are used to ascertain an
individual’s status with respect to some criterion i.e. performance standard.
It is because an individual is compared with some established criterion, rather
than other individual, that these measures are described as criterion
referenced. The meaning of an individual’s score is not dependent on comparison
with other testees. We want to know what the individual can do, not how much he
stands in comparison to others”.
From the above definitions it is concluded
that criterion referenced test is meant to measure the achievement in that
domain. It has nothing to do with the achievement level of the other examinees.
Criterion referenced test
·
Measures student’s
achievement of curriculum-based skills.
·
Has particular
grade or course level.
·
Represents balanced
goals and objectives.
·
Evaluates the
curriculum plan instruction progress and group student’s interaction.
·
Can be administered
before and after instruction.
·
Is generally
reported in the form of minimum scores for partial and total mastery of main
skill areas, number of correct items, percent of correct items and derived
score based on correct items and other factors.
·
Discovers the
inadequacies in learner’s learning and assist the weaker section of learners to
reach the level of other students through a regular programme of remedial
instruction.
·
Identifies the
master learners and non-master learners in a class.
·
Finds out the level
of attainment of various objectives of instruction.
·
Finds out the level
at which a particular concept has been learnt.
·
Finds better
placement of concepts at different grade levels.
·
Makes instructional
decisions of what to do with a Lerner in individually prescribed instruction
programme.
Guidelines for constructing,
administering and Evaluating Criterion referenced Tests.
1.
State the objectives: The purpose of the test should be stated clearly and concisely.
Objectives should be written in such a way that each item could be identified
with one objective. The classroom teacher should be in a position to adapt the
test to meet local situation. The set of objectives of the test should be a
true representation of content domain.
2.
Prepare test items: The test items to be
prepared should be free from any bias and technical flaws. The set of test
items should measure an objective for which it has been included in the test.
The test items should be valid indicators of the objectives for which they have
been prepared. The test items should be in appropriate form to measure the
objectives for which they have been selected. A heterogeneous sample should be
used in the test items. Item analysis should be used to detect flawed items.
The item review process should be described.
3.
Prepare instructions to the administrators: The test manual should specify the role and
responsibilities of the examiner. The test administrator should have adequate
information relating to the purpose, time limits, answer sheets and scoring of
test. The directions of the test should be clear. The test should be easy to
score. Test booklets should be attractively printed. The layout of test booklet
should be convenient for examiners.
NORM REFERENCED TEST (NRT)
Gronlund (1976) states
that norm referenced tests are “designed to rank students in order of
achievement, from high to low, so that decisions based on relative achievements
(e.g., selection, grouping and grading) can be made with greater confidence”.
This test is
used primarily for comparing achievement of an examinee to that of a large
representative group of examinees at the same grade level. The representative
group is known as the ‘Norm’. Norm group may be made up of examinees at the
local, district, state or national level. Since the development of norm
referenced test is expensive and time-consuming commercial test publishers
produce them. The following derived scores are generally recruited in these
published tests.
a)
Percentile Rank: A number telling the percentage of examinee in a defined
group scoring lower than the particular raw score.
b)
Linear Standard
Score: A number telling the location of the
particular score in relation to the mean and standard deviation of a defined group.
c)
Normalized
Standardized Score: A number telling
the location of the particular score in relation to a normal distribution
defined in terms of a particular group.
d)
Grade Equivalent
Score: A number telling the grade placement for
which the particular raw score is the average for a defined group.
Norm
referenced test measures student’s achievement in curriculum-based skills for a
particular grade level.
It is administered after instruction. It is used for
forming homogeneous groups out of heterogeneous class groups. It classifies
achievement as above average, average or below average for a given grade. It is generally reported in the form of
Percentile Rank, Linear Standard Score, Normalized Standard Score and Grade
Equivalent Score.
Process for developing norm-referenced achievement test:
According to L.M. Carey (1988), the process for developing
norm referenced test may be done in following stages:
1.
Design Stage: It is done through curriculum analysis, selecting objectives to
be measured, analyzing objectives for determining pre-requisite skills,
developing table of specifications for test and determining specifications for
items.
2.
Development stage: This consists of writing items according to specifications like
developing needed artwork and illustrations, writing response directions and
examples, writing administrative directions, reviewing items illustrations and
direction developing test lay-out and finally developing a simple test.
3.
Conducting field test: At this stage, testis tried out through selecting representative
group, administering test, scoring, analyzing information, analyzing data, and
selecting items and developing final test form.
4.
Developing test norms: Norms of the test are developed through describing characteristics
of population, selecting representative norm group, administering test to norm
group, scoring, converting raw score to standard scores and creating norm
tables.
Writing Test Manual: The test manual is written describing,
1.
The designed
process and skills measure,
2.
The field test
process,
3.
The developing
process,
4.
Criteria used to
select items,
5.
Norm group
selection procedure,
6.
Norm group
characteristics,
7.
Test
characteristics viz, reliability and standard error of measurement,
8.
Standard
administrative procedures,
9.
Scoring procedure and
derivations and
10.
Score
interpretation procedures.
Uses of norm referenced test
1.
It is useful in
aptitude testing for making differential prediction.
2.
To get a reliable
rank ordering of the pupils with respect to the achievement we are measuring.
3.
To identify the
pupils who have mastered the essentials of the course more than others.
4.
To select the best
of the applicants for a particular programme.
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